TONGA: ART AND LITERATURE

In traditional Tongan art, different kinds of crafts were divided between the sexes. There were certain types of crafts that were done by men and ones that were done by women. Women were mainly the weavers. They created what is called koloa, a type of woven barkcloth or mat. But these weren’t just mats; they were used as a sign of wealth and typically exchanged during ceremonies like weddings. These koloa mats were used for a number of things, from just sleeping on them to wearing them.

Men’s arts are generally centered around woodworking. Carving tools like food bowls, spears, and war clubs are sometimes also inlaid with other materials like pearl shell and ivory, depending on the item. These war clubs were also pretty popular in Fiji. Canoe building was also a men’s skill, especially dugout canoes that were made out of one log.

One style of Tongan architecture is well known. A type of building style called the fale consists of a curved roof sitting on top of wooden pillars, using woven screens as walls. If there is a particularly bad storm bearing down on them that threatens the integrity of the walls, they’ll simply cut the wooden pillars down so that the roof is laying on the ground. The curvature of the roof allows the wind to flow over it easier. They've updated some of their building materials over the decades, though. There are also stone monuments and tombs that are found throughout the islands as well.

Like other South Pacific countries, tattooing is a common part of their culture. Some of these can be fairly elaborate and generally tell a story. It was often viewed as a symbol of strength. When the missionaries arrived in Tonga, they highly discouraged it (what a buzzkill), and the practice fell to the wayside somewhat. Today, it’s common for both men and women to have some tattoos. (One day I’ll finally figure out what I want a tattoo of.)

Tonga has not had a strong written literary history, which has mostly been in the form of oral tales and stories. However, during the 1960s and 1970s, there was a general push for developing Pacific Islander literature on a broader scale. Although there are newspapers and a few magazines that are produced in the Tongan language, there are few literature publications that are produced in Tongan. English is taught in school and serves as one of the main languages of instruction and business, so most authors end up publishing their works in English for a broader audience.

Epeli Hau'ofa

And not to be left out, Tonga has had two writers who emerged during this period. Epeli Hau’ofa is known as a short story writer, especially for the collection called Tales of the Tikongs as well as a novel Kisses in the Nederends. He actually traveled around and lived between Tonga and Fiji. While he was living in Tonga, he also produced a literary magazine with his wife called Faikara.

Konai Helu Thaman

Another author from Tonga is Konai Helu Thaman. Not only was she a teacher and poet, she’s also taken several positions with UNESCO. Many of her works have been used as part of the curriculum across the Pacific.

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MOLDOVA: ART AND LITERATURE

Moldova has a very arts-rich history, and the arts are an important part of their culture. Their art is divided into several genres; one of them is called decorative arts, which includes handicrafts, pottery, ceramics, metalworking, traditional clothing making, etc. One art that they are particularly known for is their ceramics. Ceramic bowls and pots were used for preparing and cooking food and for food storage as well. Moldovan ceramics differs a little from other ceramics traditions in the fact that their ornamentation is made up of lines, dots, and circles like no one else does. Their choice of colors, ornamentation, and basic form sets their ceramics apart from the others. 

I think I need this.

They also have a strong tradition of woodcarving. Quite a bit of their woodcarving is for household objects such as tables, chairs, other pieces of furniture, utensils, and tools. But Moldovan woodcarvers are also known for carving the support pillars in their homes or porches. Just hope they don’t carve it too thin! 

I really need these, too.

For women, embroidery has long been an art that has been passed down generation to generation. And really, up until recent decades, there wasn’t a home where the woman didn’t decorate something with embroidery. Things like pillowcases, tablecloths, curtains, towels, and women’s blouses are examples of some of the objects women typically embroider. Some of the motifs include floral designs, animals (butterflies, chickens, ram horns), or other natural designs (rivers, trees, mountains). Many women also just embroider geometric or zig-zag designs as well. 

And this shirt, too. I think I need to start saving my money to go to Moldova.

Many Moldovan artists today work with a number of mediums from painting to sculpting to graphics and computer arts. Many of the top colleges and universities offer arts programs, and art galleries dot cities and towns across the country. 

by Mihai Grecu (1916-1998)

Literature in Moldova shares not only a common language but many literary traditions with Romania. The earliest works we know of go back to the Middle Ages to about the 10^th or 11^th centuries. During this time, written works were pretty much religious texts. And it was also written in what’s called Old Church Slavonic. The first book in Moldova to be published was Kazania, which was published in 1643. However, a translation of the Psalms into Romanian was published not long after this. 

The 15^th–17^th centuries saw quite a bit of changes to literature during this time. A prince by the name of Vasile Lupu established a university and several publishing houses, not to mention establishing some of the earliest laws in Moldavia. Later on, historical works and chronicles began to take hold, documenting the history of the land. 

This carries us into the 18^th century where secular works began to take a foothold. More dictionaries and language books also were produced during this time. Storytelling and lyric poetry was becoming more common, especially love stories and stories of social struggles. The first newspapers began being published during the 19^th century. 

During the Soviet years, writers were still producing works. Much of these works came in both prose and poetry forms and often discussed the revolution. During WWII, literature was still produced without hesitation in all genres: children’s lit, epic novels, essays, short stories, poetry, and other genres. There was also a rise in literature from Bessarabia and a slight rise in literature written in Gagauz, mostly available from the efforts of Mihail Ciachir who put together the first Gagauz dictionary and grammar book during the 1920s and 1930. In the early 1990s, another surge in Gagauz literature took place after independence.

 

Ion Druta

Today, Moldovan writers span all genres and styles. Some Moldovan authors of note include Ion Druta, Emilian Bukov, Leonid Corneanu, Samuil Lehttsir, Gheorghe Asachi, Ienachitsa Vacarescu, Demitrie Cantemir, and many more.

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MADAGASCAR: ART AND LITERATURE

The culture of Madagascar is closely related to the culture of Borneo. Even though the early settlers arrived from Borneo thousands of years ago, there is clear evidence of this bond in their musical instruments, home construction, cuisine, and other features. Their art, with inspirations of both Southeast Asia and mainland Africa, is no different. 

 

Traditional arts were definitely dependent on the materials readily available. Silk and cloth weaving are necessary skills for the creation of the lamba cloths (the traditional cloth that is wrapped around the body). Embroidery and sewing arts also go hand-in-hand with the weaving arts. Raffia weaving is integral to Malagasy arts and is used to make a variety of items used in housewares, such as baskets and mats. Raffia is also used in textiles such as bags, purses, and hats.

Side of djembe drum

 

Woodcarving, a common art form throughout Africa, is a highly developed form of art on Madagascar. Many of these decorative skills are found on furniture and in home building. Sculptors vary their skills between functional sculptures like furniture and funeral posts to smaller carvings aimed for the tourist market. The Zafimaniry are especially known for their wood carving skills; it made the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage list. 

Women Grooming, by Dzery

 

In the urban areas, art galleries are popping up here and there. It’s still a small number, but it’s growing. Local painters are gaining recognition in their communities through these galleries as painting arts gain popularity. 

Literature in Madagascar is mainly written in Malagasy, a language that is synonymous with its national identity. The earliest examples of writings from Madagascar were mainly religious in nature and written using an Arabic script called sorabe adapted specifically for the Malagasy language.

At the beginning of the 20^th century after the French colonization of the island, a Western style of literature began to emerge among writers. The early part of their modern literary history (1906-1938) is divided into four phases with these poetically named periods: 1) learning to walk, 2) nostalgia, 3) a return to origins, and 4) the search for what’s been lost. Through these periods, Malagasy writers not only developed their own writing styles but also developed their voices as a people. For many, a national identity was formed in the struggles of colonialism and a national voice began to be heard. 

 

Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo. Rough translation: "Reflections, a silent dream / Almost no vibration / Glide, to where? crossing, / And which? Not found ..."

 

The great poet Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo is often touted as Africa’s first modern poet. What made his work different from others at that time was his ability to merge romantic, modernist, and surrealist styles of poetry with key features of Malagasy oratory. He didn’t just write poetry: he also wrote several historical novels and even an opera. His suicide by cyanide in 1937 also contributed to immortalizing his works. 

 

Clarisse Ratsifandrihamanana, circa 1952

 

Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo paved the way for other modern Malagasy writers: Elie Rajaonarison (poet), Jacques Rabemananjara (poet, playwright, politician), Jean Verdi Salomon Razakandrainy (also known as Dox, poet and writer), Jean-Luc Raharimanana (writer, journalist, teacher), Clarisse Ratsifandrihamanana (writer, recipient of seven literary prizes), and Michèle Rakotoson (film maker, writer, journalist).

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GRENADA: ART AND LITERATURE

Although the earliest people here, the Carib Indians, were driven away or died there to avoid the first option, they left a part of them behind: their art. The Caribs etched important events of their daily lives into the sides of cliffs, in caves, and other areas around the islands.

Painting is huge on the island of Grenada. And who can blame them? They have a wonderful backdrop of some of the most beautiful scenery to paint. Whereas most painters typically use canvas as the main medium to paint on, Grenadian artists don’t stop there. These artists have been known to paint on a variety of mediums: wood, metal, cloth, bamboo, and even the calabash (a type of gourd). St. George’s has several art shows and showcases throughout the year bringing hundreds of visitors to local artists. Some of the most influential painters in Grenada are Canute Caliste, Elinus Cato, and John Benjamin MBE.

by Elinus Cato

Woven crafts are also very popular, especially in the tourist markets. However, items such as hat, purses, placemats, and baskets are also regularly used in the average Grenadian home as well. You’ll find most of these items are made from wicker, straw, or bamboo. 

Woodcarving is also especially popular as well.  Many of these items are also used in the home, like bowls of all sizes, kitchen utensils (wooden spatulas, wooden spoons, etc.), or furniture. Typically, these items are made from mahogany or red cedar but other types may be used.

As with most other Caribbean countries, jewelry is an art form going back centuries. Known for jewelry made from local materials, black coral and turtle shell are common materials from these islands. Actually, shells of all types are used in jewelry, as well as wooden beads and even paper beads. 

Storytelling is at the heart of Grenada’s literary traditions. This tradition is closely tied to the African traditions that were brought over during the Slave Trade.  Today, the vast majority of Grenadian literature is written in English, but some of it is in French Creole. Literary festivals, such as Spice Word Literary Festival and Poetry Slam, are held throughout the year to showcase the best of what this island nation has to offer.

Tobias S. Buckell is a science fiction author who was born in Grenada. He is most known for being the author of the sixth book in the Halo series, Halo: The Cole Protocol. As successful as he is as a writer, he suffers from dyslexia.

Merle Collins was actually born in Aruba, but later moved back to Grenada since her parents were Grenadian. She got her bachelor’s degree in English and Spanish in Jamaica, her master’s degree in Latin American studies in the US, and her Ph.D. in Government in the UK. She has spent many years teaching and was active in the Grenadian Revolution. Collins has published literary and social commentaries, poetry, short stories, and novels.

Gus John is a writer, educator, and social commentator. He was born in Grenada and later moved to the UK where he was instrumental in writing and advising on the problems with the education of minorities. He worked closely with various groups aimed at curbing youth violence and has written many articles and books on the subjects of education, race, violence, the Caribbean, and the inequality persistent in all of these things.

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FIJI: ART AND LITERATURE

The earliest form of art found in Fiji is pottery.  Men typically excavate the clay used for pottery, but for the most part, the women are almost solely the potters. They will often have to work the clay by adding sand, kneading it, and letting it dry to get it to just the right texture needed to form pottery.  Unlike other cultures, Fijians do not glaze their work; instead they take certain plants and rub it onto the finished product to give it a varnished look as well as a waterproof quality.

By the time a girl growing up in the village reaches the age of ten, she will be taught mat and basket weaving. Palm fronds or pandanus leaves are usually used for this because of their abundance on the island. These mats are vital to every home: it’s used as floor coverings, bedding mats, fans, and baskets.  In fact, they are so important to the home, the mat’s quality and quantity are included in the “wealth” of a family and often given as gifts at weddings, funerals, births, and other special events.

A type of cloth made from stripped bark from trees is known as masi or tapa. Mostly from mulberry trees, women will take this bark, strip it, soak it, beat it to a pulp (literally), and roll it out, like paper.  This fabric is then used for many purposes, such as ceremonial wear, wall decorations, wall decorations, tablemats, handbags, etc.

Woodcarving is also an important art in Fijian history, albeit a declining one. One of the most important pieces of woodcarving in Fijian society was the war club. It was a highly decorated instrument that not only doubled as a weapon, but as a symbol of authority and used in ceremonial dances. Today, yaqona bowls (also called tanoa) are some of the most commonly carved works of art.

In many countries that were under European rule, they were also introduced to art in a modern, European sense. And many of these countries also go through a period of revival of the traditional arts, especially when they are granted independence. It wasn’t so with Fiji. The main reason being that they never stopped pursuing their traditional art forms. And while there may be Fijian painters and sculptor actively working and creating European-style art, traditional arts still won out over European-influenced styles and techniques overall.

Fijian literature didn’t get started until just before they separated from Britain. The University of the South Pacific wasn’t founded until 1968, when Fijians had the opportunity to learn creative writing and literature courses were available. Before this, Fijian literature mostly only existed as stories passed down by word of mouth. Soon after independence, publishing companies and literary magazines popped up around the islands. Literary societies started promoting not only their own writing but also literature of the Pacific Islanders in general. Much of Fijian literature is either written in English, Fijian, or in Hindi (and some poets even mix languages).

Some of the well-known authors from Fiji include Raymond Pillai (short stories), Subramani (short stories, novels), Pio Manoa (poetry), Vilsoni Hereniko (playwright), Satendra Nandan (poetry, novels), Sudesh Mishra (poetry), Larry Thomas (playwright, director), and Joseph Veramo (novels, short stories).

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CÔTE D’IVOIRE: ART AND LITERATURE

Hands down, Ivoirians are known for their woodcarving skills. And if there is one thing they are most known for would be masks. Masks, in and of itself, are not something new or unique to Africa in general. But each tribe or group of people that create them puts their own cultural touch to it.  Masks serve a variety of purposes and are created in a variety of styles as well:  some symbolize deities, some represent deceased individuals, and other are created in the likeness are animals.  Ivoirians believe that these masks have their own soul, and when you put the mask on, the soul of the mask enters the wearer’s body.  This is why only certain people can wear certain masks.  And in fact, not just anybody can even own a mask. 

But in modern times, masks aren’t merely the only things that Ivoirian artists do.  Today, artists have expanded their field to include all types of art, including photography, sculpting, textile arts, and painting. 

One of the most famous photographers in Côte d’Ivoire is Ananias Leki Dago. He’s won several awards for his work over the past decade.

Another artist who has won several awards for his work is sculptor Christian Lattier.  Many of his pieces are in a special collection held at the Musée National de Ivory Coast in Abidjan. 

Ouattara Watts is a painter whose works are renowned the world over as a neo-expressionism artist. The thing that makes his art interesting is the use of recycled materials in his art. 

The earliest forms of literature, as with most other areas of Africa, come from the oral storytelling traditions.  Each tribe or ethnic group of people certainly has their own stories told in their own languages.  And while colonialism generally led to a lot of changes in Africa that wasn’t always welcome or warranted, there were some things that came as a result of it that wasn’t so bad.  Ivoirian literature as we know it is written in French, a “second” language for most Ivoirians.  And yet, at the same time, because many of these countries have 60 or 70 different indigenous languages, French acted as a lingua franca among the people.  And by writing in French, a lesser impact more or less set up literature from Côte d’Ivoire to be mainly read in the European market first and the African Francosphere market second.

The subject matter certainly varies from writer to writer and from decade to decade. On one hand, there are traditional stories that have been chronicled, and on another hand, there is the political and socio-economical sentiments.  Ivoirian literature also ranges in genres including poetry, short stories, plays, and novels.

Born in Abidjan, Marguerite Abouet later moved to the suburbs of Paris.  Although she tried to write novels at first, she really made her name as a graphic novelist.  Although her first graphic novel, Aya, depicted life in Côte d’Ivoire, and it was often speculated that it was semi-autobiographical, but she insisted that it wasn’t.  She collaborated with her artist husband who did the illustrations. It was rather successful both in France and abroad, and there are others that followed the first one. It’s available through Amazon.com – I read a little of a preview they have. I might try to buy it one of these days. My library actually had a different book called Akissi that I’m requesting.

Also born in Abidjan, Bernard Binlin Dadié was a novelist, playwright, poet, and politician, holding the position of Minister of Culture for nine years during the 1960s and 1970s.  Influenced by his experiences when the country was still under French control, one of his first major works was taking traditional stories and folktales and then comparing and connecting them to the modern world.  He is also known for his widely-read poem “I Thank You God.”

Ahmedou Kourouma studied in various countries in his youth, only to return to Côte d’Ivoire just after its independence. Because he questioned and generally opposed the new leadership of the country, he was subsequently exiled for the next 30 years, dividing this time between Algeria, Cameroon, and Togo before eventually coming back home. The first novel he wrote (Le soleils des indépendances) was highly critical of the government, which almost always places the writer in difficult situations.  Even in the wake of the 2002 civil war, his outcries threatened his safety once again. Although he’s written several novels, he’s more well known in the French-speaking world than in the English-speaking one.

Véronique Tadjo often considers herself as pan-African since she has spent a lot of time all over Africa. One of her parents was Ivoirian and the other was French, which helped contribute to her love of travel, learning, and the academic life. She eventually got her bachelor’s degree and doctorate, spending time teaching English and French at the college level. She also travels giving workshops and seminars in writing and literature, especially children’s literature. She’s won several awards for her books – the book Mamy Wata and the Monster was chosen as one of Africa’s Best 100 Books of the 20^th Century, making it only one of four children’s books to be included.

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