TAJIKISTAN: ART AND LITERATURE

Tajiks are very proud of their cultural history, and it’s very much tied to quite a bit of Persian history as well. In fact, many like to make the point that several of the great “Persian” artists and poets were actually Tajiks like themselves. Tajik culture is a mix of Persian, Mongolian, Arab, Islamic, and Russian influences.

Handicrafts and textiles are some of the main forms of art in Tajik culture. And they really like bright colors, which are worked into their embroidery, weaving, and applique work. Hawks are an important symbol in their culture, so sometimes this is incorporated into their art, especially in their singing, dancing, and folktales.

Pottery is also a common art form, stemming from the Samanid period. They developed a type of painting called slip painting, where they would add colors into semifluid clay and then brush on a glaze on top to keep the colors from running when it’s fired. A lot of pieces (mainly bowls and plates) had animals or Arabic calligraphy on it. Bronzecasting and other types of metalwork were also pretty commonly done during that time as well. A lot of these art styles were spread throughout the region.

Read more about this painting here.

Arts during the Soviet years were under scrutiny due to the sociopolitical atmosphere at the time. While many Tajik intellectuals were using their arts as a means for their anti-communist sentiment, the Soviets were painting them as backwoods and primitive to a degree. However, the Russians actually did a lot for expanding arts like cinema and fine arts, especially in the beginning. In fact, one of the main influences the Russians had was introducing Western-style painting to Tajik artists.

For many Tajiks, there is not much difference between their culture and Persian culture. In their eyes, they are pretty much the same. And because the Persian Empire included not only Tajikistan but also neighboring Uzbekistan, several of what they consider their cultural centers (mainly Samarkand and Bukhara) are actually now located in Uzbekistan. But I guess it’s how like areas of Texas (or pretty much most of that corner of the country) used to be part of Mexico.

From the movie Silence (1998)

With the standardization of the Tajik language, it gave credence to Tajik literature, a platform for which it to grow. As much as their indifference and distaste for the Russians, Tajik literature did begin to grow during the late 1800s. The main style many Tajik writers embraced was socialist realism. Poetry is a common writing style as well as plays. Tajikistan also had a fairly successful film industry at one time. With its beginnings in the 1930s, some film buffs consider the 1970s to be the Golden Age of Tajik films.

Some of the authors who have had an influence on Tajik literature include Sadriddin Aini (poet, writer, educator), Abu’l-Qasem Lahuti (Iranian-Tajik lyrical and socialist realist poet), Mirzo Tursunzoda (poet who wrote about social change and collected oral literature), Satim Ulugzade (Soviet-Tajik writer, playwright, translator), Karim Hakim (Tajik Soviet novelist, short story writer, playwright), Pairov Sulaimoni (poet, writer), Roziya Ozod (female poet, writer, teacher), and Aminjan Shokuhi (poet).

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PHILIPPINES: ART AND LITERATURE

One of the earliest forms of art found in the Philippines is pottery. Pottery was a key element for advancing a society because it allowed people to store and cook food. Early pottery was made with clay, and they created a variety of pots and containers for a number of purposes from food preparations (cooking, eating, storing food) to ceremonial uses (urns). Over time, the styles and decorations changed on each pot. 

 

Filipino women are also skilled in weaving. Some of the materials they use in traditional weaving are the fibers from pineapple, cotton, bark cloth, and abaca (the same material that also gives us Manila folders). Depending on what they are making, woven baskets, mats, cloth, rugs, hats, and other items were commonly made. 

by Fernando Amorsolo

After the Spanish arrived, they introduced European-style painting. In the beginning, the Spanish brought along quite a few religious paintings and used them to teach the islanders about Christianity. In turn, they also taught them how to paint. At first, the Filipinos painted in the same style that the Spanish taught them: only Christian/religious paintings. But around the 19^th century, certain Filipino artists who were wealthier than others began to branch out and break tradition: they introduced secular paintings like Filipino landscapes and Filipino subject, not European Christian themes. They began to paint themselves, their culture, and their land. And as war hit their country during the 20^th century, they used painting and art as a means of expression to deal with the pain and destruction of their country.

 

by Elito Circa -- because a painting of Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao painted in human blood is exactly what the world was missing.

A few artists of note include Elito Circa (folk artist who paints with human hair, blood, and body fluids), Juan Luna (painter, sculptor, political activist during 19^th century Philippine Revolution), Benedicto Cabrera (famous painter, known as BenCab), Fernando Amorsolo (famous painter of portraits and landscapes), David Medalla (sculpture, performance art, installation, kinetic art), Augusto Arbizo (artist, painter, curator), Rey Paz Contreras (sculptor, famous for using recycled materials), Félix Hidalgo (famous painter of 19^th century), Malang (cartoonist, illustrator, painter), Ang Kiukok (painter, worked in cubism, surrealism, expressionism), Lito Mayo (graphic artist, print maker, sculptor, art professor), and Anita Magsaysay-Ho (counted as one of the major painters in the Philippines—and only female included in the “greats” list).

 

by Anita Magsaysay-Ho

Of the earliest forms of literature, epic stories were one of the primary forms of storytelling. Most of these stories were told by word of mouth and passed down from generation to generation. Some of the wealthier families were able to afford to have these stories transcribed down. One of the more famous epic stories is Darangen, a story that originated from the Maranao people of the southern island Mindanao.

Although I imagine there was a certain amount of literature produced during the years the Spanish controlled the country, most of the canon of modern literature was created after the United States took over. As Filipino writers witnessed the transformation to a new colonial period, much of the literature during the first few decades were in response to the Spanish-controlled times. As the 20^th century progressed, the Modernismo genre took a prominent role, steeped in the literary traditions of Latin America.

Notable authors include Estrella Alfon, Francisco Arcellana, Liwayway Arceo, Jose Garcia Villa, Peter Solis Nery, F. Sionil José, Francisco Balagtas,  Lualhati Bautista, Cecilia Manguerra Brainard, Nick Joaquin, and N.V.M. Gonzáles.

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FIJI: ART AND LITERATURE

The earliest form of art found in Fiji is pottery.  Men typically excavate the clay used for pottery, but for the most part, the women are almost solely the potters. They will often have to work the clay by adding sand, kneading it, and letting it dry to get it to just the right texture needed to form pottery.  Unlike other cultures, Fijians do not glaze their work; instead they take certain plants and rub it onto the finished product to give it a varnished look as well as a waterproof quality.

By the time a girl growing up in the village reaches the age of ten, she will be taught mat and basket weaving. Palm fronds or pandanus leaves are usually used for this because of their abundance on the island. These mats are vital to every home: it’s used as floor coverings, bedding mats, fans, and baskets.  In fact, they are so important to the home, the mat’s quality and quantity are included in the “wealth” of a family and often given as gifts at weddings, funerals, births, and other special events.

A type of cloth made from stripped bark from trees is known as masi or tapa. Mostly from mulberry trees, women will take this bark, strip it, soak it, beat it to a pulp (literally), and roll it out, like paper.  This fabric is then used for many purposes, such as ceremonial wear, wall decorations, wall decorations, tablemats, handbags, etc.

Woodcarving is also an important art in Fijian history, albeit a declining one. One of the most important pieces of woodcarving in Fijian society was the war club. It was a highly decorated instrument that not only doubled as a weapon, but as a symbol of authority and used in ceremonial dances. Today, yaqona bowls (also called tanoa) are some of the most commonly carved works of art.

In many countries that were under European rule, they were also introduced to art in a modern, European sense. And many of these countries also go through a period of revival of the traditional arts, especially when they are granted independence. It wasn’t so with Fiji. The main reason being that they never stopped pursuing their traditional art forms. And while there may be Fijian painters and sculptor actively working and creating European-style art, traditional arts still won out over European-influenced styles and techniques overall.

Fijian literature didn’t get started until just before they separated from Britain. The University of the South Pacific wasn’t founded until 1968, when Fijians had the opportunity to learn creative writing and literature courses were available. Before this, Fijian literature mostly only existed as stories passed down by word of mouth. Soon after independence, publishing companies and literary magazines popped up around the islands. Literary societies started promoting not only their own writing but also literature of the Pacific Islanders in general. Much of Fijian literature is either written in English, Fijian, or in Hindi (and some poets even mix languages).

Some of the well-known authors from Fiji include Raymond Pillai (short stories), Subramani (short stories, novels), Pio Manoa (poetry), Vilsoni Hereniko (playwright), Satendra Nandan (poetry, novels), Sudesh Mishra (poetry), Larry Thomas (playwright, director), and Joseph Veramo (novels, short stories).

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CHAD: ART AND LITERATURE

Chadian art tends to fall into two categories: functional art, and art that is made for tourists. Items that fall into the functional art category would be baskets, clay pots, woven fans, etc. The woven fans and baskets are dyed with pigments from plants, flowers, and other natural ingredients, with purple and green being the most widely used colors.

When I think about making clay pots, I think of slapping the clay on a potters wheel and forming the pottery on that.  But in Chad, many don’t have that luxury. They form it strictly with their hands. And whereas we use a kiln to fire the pieces (which are really expensive – I’ve looked into buying one), they start a fire with pieces of wood and straw and get it really hot. Then they put the piece in the fire. And after a while, they cover the piece and the fire in sand and leave it there overnight.

And of course, there is the other kind of art: that for the tourist. This includes greeting cards, post cards, paintings, various textile arts, jewelry, etc. Most of this art is created by women to supplement the family’s income while the men are out doing agricultural work or other manual labor work.

French is the major language of Chadian literature, although some writers do produce written works in Arabic as well. Chadian authors actually tend to sell more works in France because the instability of the government.  The repressive nature of anyone who dares to speak out against the conditions in the country makes it really hard for these writers to get published. There are many books written about the conditions of their country and criticisms of the government.  Of course, there are also many books written on folklore, legends, and other stories that have been passed down.

There aren’t too many Chadian authors that are well known, and especially outside of Chad and France. Ahmat Taboye is the country’s lone literary critic.  He published his Anthologie de la littérature tchadienne in 2003, noting forty years of Chadian literature. He currently works at the University of N’Djamena as the head of the Department of Letters.  Joseph Brahim Seïd was a writer and politician (serving as Minister of Justice during the late 1960s-early 1970s) who wrote a couple of books in the 1960s. Baba Moustapha was a playwright whose finest work was published a year after his death in 1983, a play called Commandant Chaka. Antoine Bangui was a politician and was imprisoned for three years in the 1970s because he disagreed with President Tombalbaye and got on his wrong side. When he was released he published a book on his time in prison followed by an autobiography. His life afterwards is a mix of various political activities and writing more books. Koulsy Lamko is a playwright and novelist among other things, who studied in Burkina Faso where he met Thomas Sankara. He later studied in Rwanda where he wrote his only novel – La phalène des collines, about the 1994 Rwandan genocide.

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CAPE VERDE: ART AND LITERATURE

The two most popular means of art in Cape Verde are pottery and weaving. As far as pottery goes, the most important pottery pieces that are created are large water containers (called potes), vases, and other sculptures.  Tapestries colored in white, indigo, and black are also very popular items. Indigo dyed clothes used for clothing are commonly made and used in Cape Verde. 

However, painting arts are also very popular as well. Some of the more well-known painters are Manuel Figueira, Barros-Gizzi, and Maria-Luiza Queirós.  

 

by Manuel Figueira

Some of their arts were introduced by the Portuguese, like crocheted blankets.  Yet, other styles were influenced by the African mainland, such as woodworking, embroidery, and woven baskets.

Of all the Portuguese-speaking African countries, the literature of Cape Verde is one of the strongest traditions.  Generally speaking, writers fall into either two categories: poetry and novels. And of course, many writers do both. And with that being said, many writers publish works in both Portuguese and in Crioulo (or Cape Verdean).

 

Now THAT'S a mustache! (In Portuguese: Eugénio Tavares: The great interpreter of the wonderful Cape Verdean spirit / Poet, writer, composer, journalist, 1867-1930)

Eugénio Tavares is perhaps one of the most well-known poets of Cape Verde. Many of his poems are closely tied to the musical form most associated with Cape Verde, morna. 

Another author and poet is Baltasar Lopes da Silva, whose 1947 novel Chiquinho is considered by many to be the greatest Cape Verdean novel. (He often wrote under the pseudonym Osvaldo Alcântara.)  Before this, he gathered together with other Cape Verdean writers and created Claridade, a journal publishing essays, short stories, and poetry about problems in their society and their view of the reality that faced them at that time.

 

Manuel Lopes was another author that worked with da Silva on Claridade.  One of his works, Os Flagelados do Vento Leste, was made into a movie in 1987. 

Orlanda Amarílis is one of the more prominent women writers of Cape Verde. She tends to write about topics relating to the lives of Cape Verdean women as well as the Cape Verdeans who live abroad for one reason or another, as she has for many years throughout her life. Literary arts are something that runs in her family. She’s related to Baltasar Lopes da Silva, and her father was one of the people who worked to compile the first Cape Verdean Creole dictionary.

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