TAJIKISTAN: ART AND LITERATURE

Tajiks are very proud of their cultural history, and it’s very much tied to quite a bit of Persian history as well. In fact, many like to make the point that several of the great “Persian” artists and poets were actually Tajiks like themselves. Tajik culture is a mix of Persian, Mongolian, Arab, Islamic, and Russian influences.

Handicrafts and textiles are some of the main forms of art in Tajik culture. And they really like bright colors, which are worked into their embroidery, weaving, and applique work. Hawks are an important symbol in their culture, so sometimes this is incorporated into their art, especially in their singing, dancing, and folktales.

Pottery is also a common art form, stemming from the Samanid period. They developed a type of painting called slip painting, where they would add colors into semifluid clay and then brush on a glaze on top to keep the colors from running when it’s fired. A lot of pieces (mainly bowls and plates) had animals or Arabic calligraphy on it. Bronzecasting and other types of metalwork were also pretty commonly done during that time as well. A lot of these art styles were spread throughout the region.

Read more about this painting here.

Arts during the Soviet years were under scrutiny due to the sociopolitical atmosphere at the time. While many Tajik intellectuals were using their arts as a means for their anti-communist sentiment, the Soviets were painting them as backwoods and primitive to a degree. However, the Russians actually did a lot for expanding arts like cinema and fine arts, especially in the beginning. In fact, one of the main influences the Russians had was introducing Western-style painting to Tajik artists.

For many Tajiks, there is not much difference between their culture and Persian culture. In their eyes, they are pretty much the same. And because the Persian Empire included not only Tajikistan but also neighboring Uzbekistan, several of what they consider their cultural centers (mainly Samarkand and Bukhara) are actually now located in Uzbekistan. But I guess it’s how like areas of Texas (or pretty much most of that corner of the country) used to be part of Mexico.

From the movie Silence (1998)

With the standardization of the Tajik language, it gave credence to Tajik literature, a platform for which it to grow. As much as their indifference and distaste for the Russians, Tajik literature did begin to grow during the late 1800s. The main style many Tajik writers embraced was socialist realism. Poetry is a common writing style as well as plays. Tajikistan also had a fairly successful film industry at one time. With its beginnings in the 1930s, some film buffs consider the 1970s to be the Golden Age of Tajik films.

Some of the authors who have had an influence on Tajik literature include Sadriddin Aini (poet, writer, educator), Abu’l-Qasem Lahuti (Iranian-Tajik lyrical and socialist realist poet), Mirzo Tursunzoda (poet who wrote about social change and collected oral literature), Satim Ulugzade (Soviet-Tajik writer, playwright, translator), Karim Hakim (Tajik Soviet novelist, short story writer, playwright), Pairov Sulaimoni (poet, writer), Roziya Ozod (female poet, writer, teacher), and Aminjan Shokuhi (poet).

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SUDAN: ART AND LITERATURE

Tribal life dominated the early art of Sudan, from tools and other practical matters to items used for religious/spiritual purposes. And even today, their past cultural lifestyles creep into their artistic styles and subject matter.

Whenever I hear about terracotta sculptures, my first thought is the soldier statues found in China, but the Djenne tribe also created sculptures from terracotta as well. These sculptures typically have a sense of calming and serenity about them. Probably the most well known of these terracotta figures is a person riding a horse, which is seen as a symbol of power.

They certainly had their preferred forms of handicrafts. One of the more common arts is jewelry and beadwork. Beadwork is not only used as part of decorating clothing and other similar textile applications, but they also had trading beads that were made from colored glass. Other types of arts such as textile arts (many people utilize brightly colored cloth as part of their wraps, clothing, and accessories), metalwork, and leatherwork are commonly created here.

After the Turks invaded Sudan during the early part of the 1800s, one of their motives was to modernize the Nile Valley. And a big push toward education was one of the results. However, art education really didn't pick up until the early part of the 20th century. As students traveled to the cultural centers of Europe to study art, they realized they could merge the old traditions with the new. Many of these artists returned to Khartoum where they took what they learned and applied it to representing their unity and celebrating their diversity.

by Mohamed Fadul -- his paintings are stunning!

Literature in Sudan is nothing new. Pieces of literature written in the ancient Meroitic script that date back as far as 700 years BC have been found in this area. There was a strong tradition, as in many areas of Africa, or storytelling and poetry, and many of these stories were passed down orally from generation to generation. These stories fall into a couple of categories: Ahaji tales, which tend to be more like fairy tales complete with mythological characters and magic powers; and Madih tales, also called praise tales, have more of a religious tone to them.

During the 16th and 17th centuries, a change began to take place in their literary styles, and the foundations for modern Sudanese literature solidified. First of all, it was mainly written in Arabic, yet certain poetic traditions were still written in the local language. (i.e. Fur-language poetry). 20th century scholars began the painstaking task of writing down many of these oral folkloric stories, traveling around and gathering these stories to write down.

University of Khartoum library

Newspapers also began to pop up across the country during the 20th century, including several that published short stories and poetry. Probably one of the more influential ones was Al-Ra'id, sending out its first issue in 1914 in Khartoum. Fast forward to the 1960s when the students studying in Europe arrived back home to social turmoil, and they began writing about it, starting with a novel called Al-Faragh al-'arid (The Vast Emptiness). What was most jarring when it was published in 1970, was not only that it was published posthumously by Malkat Ed-Dar Mohamed, but that it was written by a woman writing about some heavy topics in a realist way. (How dare women have feelings about things?)
 

Al-Tayyib Salih

Another Sudanese author of note is Al-Tayyib Salih, novel and short story writer. His most famous work is Season of Migration to the North (1967), first published in Arabic but later translated into English and French. He's considered one of the most influential writers of 20th century Sudanese literature.

Ibrahim 'Ali Salman

Other Sudanese writers of note include Hammour Ziada (novelist, journalist), Ra'ouf Mus'ad (journalist, novelist, playwright), Rashad Hashim (well-known Sudanese Romantic poet), Al-Tijani Yusuf Bashir (Romantic poet who wrote in Arabic), Gely Abdel Rahman (poet of the latter part of the 20th century), Ibrahim 'Ali Salman (one of the most famous contemporary poets), Mohammed Abdul-Hayy (considered one of the founders of modern Sudanese poetry), Safia Elhillo (known for her written and spoken poetry), and Jaafar Abbas (known for his satirical works).

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QATAR: ART AND LITERATURE

Prehistoric rock carvings and rock art have been found in several places around Qatar. Some of these drawing depict humans, animals (like turtles, ostriches, and fish), and boats while others were merely geometric and tribal designs. 

 

There are a ton of other folk art styles. Weaving and dying fabric is common, especially in a Bedouin fashion. Typically sheep or camel wool is used while the dyes were made from herbs and other natural resources. Embroidery was also a common ornamental feature in clothing. Gold threads imported from India were frequently used. There were several different kinds of stitches used as well as designs like flowers and birds.

A certain amount of art and aesthetics went into their historical architecture as well. Although simply made, geometric shapes and symmetry were important decorative features in homes. Elaborately designed doors are frequently created from wood or metal. Much of their architectural design was created with the heat in mind, and windows were seldom used. Instead, they used other ways of ventilation. However, there were vertical windows that were designed to pull in wind and naturally cool the inside of the building. Colored glass is sometimes used as a decorative feature.

Although calligraphy has long been an art form, painting didn’t really gain popularity until after the oil boom struck. Common themes include Arabic and Islamic culture. In order to cultivate more artists, the government offered scholarships to young artists to study abroad, bringing back what they learned to share through exhibitions. Art museums and galleries were then built to preserve and promote Qatari art. Jassim Zaini is often considered the founder of the modern art movement; other artists of note include Faraj Daham, Wafika Sultan Al-Essa, Yousef Ahmad, Salman Al-Malik, and Hassan Al Mulla.

Historically, poetry has been an important part of literature and has been practiced for many centuries. During the 7th century, Qatari ibn al-Fuja’a was well known for his poetry and often considered a folk hero of sorts. Most poetry during was oral and performed during social events. The most common type of poem is the Nabati poem and passed down from generation to generation. Today, they’re still being read on radio and television. Women were also poets as well, but they mostly wrote laments called ritha, which served as elegies. 

Kaltham Jaber

Modern literature, written in Arabic, didn’t really begin until the 1970s when they gained their independence from Britain. And this is one art form where females have been included pretty much equal to men from the beginning. What is amazing is that the first person to publish a book was a woman: Kaltham Jaber first published her anthology of short stories in 1978.

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MALI: ART AND LITERATURE

Mali is rich in visual and textile arts. Many of these arts are tied to day-to-day living, though. Textile arts are one of the most common artistic styles easily seen in Mali. Both men and women wear brightly colored, patterned cloth. They’re known for a type of cloth style known as mud cloth, which has abstract patterns made from mud. Typically, this is a woman’s art.

To go along with the art of textile making, many Malians are adept at making jewelry. Because of Mali’s history, gold is the preferred metal in jewelry for most of the people; however, the Tuaregs prefer silver. Styles depend on personal taste and on tribe. Some tribes have their own particular style, sometimes with patterns that reflect their history or ancient religious views. Shells, clay, amber, wood, and stone are also used in making jewelry. 

They’re also known for their woodcarving. Like many other cultures in Western Africa, wooden masks and sculptures are a part of many Malian cultures. The masks are actually used to disguise the person wearing the mask when they impersonate ancestors or gods. Some tribes, like the Dogon, believe that when a person dies, their spirit stays in the mask, so therefore masks are an important part of funeral rites. The idea of gender is very important and much of their society is drawn on gender lines. In their sculptures, body features are often exaggerated to make the distinction between genders.

Mali has a particular unique type of architecture, at least different than most other building types in Western and Northern Africa. Many of the buildings (especially mosques) here are built using sun-dried mud on top of tree branch beams. Even the shapes of buildings will vary slightly from other regions as well. 

Askia the Great

Even as far back as the early 1500s, historians have noted the importance of literature in Mali. One of the great military leaders and emperors of the Songhai Empire, known as Askia the Great, was credited with promoting universities and Malian education at the time. Not only bringing in some of the world’s greatest scholars, he also built one of the largest book publishing centers in this region of Africa. One early explorer wrote about this area, saying that the demand for books is huge, especially from the North African states, and that Malians earn more profit from producing books than any other industry. 

The djali from Mali (come on, it rhymes)

Like other areas of Africa, Mali’s literature is rooted in the traditions of the djali (or sometimes spelled jali, jeli, djeli, or sometimes referred to as a griot). Djalis were an integral part of the Mali Empire and had a great responsibility: they are often quipped as walking history books, but essentially that’s what they were in a nutshell. But not exactly. Yes, they were great storytellers and musicians who retell historical stories and family traditions, but they also work in satire, gossip, political commentary, praise songs, among other topics. One of the most well-known historians, Amadou Hampâté Bâ, spent a large part of his time studying these traditions. 

Some popular Malian writers include Yambo Ouologuem (known for his book Le Devoir de Violence, it was raked with controversy over plagiarism), Maryse Condé (descended from the Bambara people and writes on their culture, although she lives in the French Antilles), Massa Makan Diabaté (known for his work The Epic of Sundiata and the Kouta Trilogy, he’s a descendent of griots), Fily Dabo Sissoko (author and political leader, writing about the Negritude movement, died in prison), and Moussa Konaté (teacher, writers, playwright).

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MALAWI: ART AND LITERATURE

Known as the “Warm Heart of Africa,” Malawian artists are definitely ones to show you their creative hearts. The earliest forms of art are its famous Neolithic rock paintings. The best example (perhaps because it’s the best preserved) is found at the Chongoni Rock-Art area, now listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. These paintings show the hunting and farming lifestyles of the ancient BaTwa people. 

Malawians have long preferred three-dimensional carving and sculpting to two-dimensional drawing or painting. Woodcarving not only had its practical functions in furniture and tools, but also in spiritual relics and honorary gifts to the community/spiritual leaders and as basic animal sculptures. Malawi has a wide variety of woods to work from; some are pretty common, while others are rare. 

Another item that is carved are masks. Wooden masks are not unique to this area alone; they’re commonly found across West, Southern, and Eastern Africa. But each culture has their own style and variation and are often worn ceremoniously. Typical masks here are made from wood and bronze and are adorned with feathers, beads, cloth, and even hair. They’re often worn by supposedly secret male-only groups (shhh, don’t tell anyone) and tied to their religion. 

Members of the community also create textile crafts, and these skills are passed on from generation to generation. People will often specialize in one particular skill like cloth dying or weaving and will work together providing the skills for others. One style many Malawian textile artists use is a wax print in designing their cloth. 

Linda Gabriel, poet

 

The earliest forms of literature were stories told orally. In Malawi today, most literature is written in English. During the first couple of decades after the country gained its independence, there was a push for a literary community. It was mainly the feat of some enterprising young college students at that time. And it did lift off of the ground. However, times have changed.

You should check out this blog post for the story behind this photo here.

 

Today with growing poverty and a dire need to only pay for the essentials, books become luxuries. Besides, with fewer children being able to afford to attend school, the literacy rate struggles around 64%. Publishers are few, and many are discerning as to what they publish in order to get the most out of what they think will sell. What’s being sold tend to be textbooks and NGO pamphlets as opposed to novels and poetry (novels and poetry are still sold, but not quite at the rate of the others). 

Most people get their books from the National Library Service; there’s one branch in all the major cities. However, the majority of their books are either donated as unsold copies from Western book publishers or used books from Western schools and such. 

Q Malewezi

Spoken poetry is quite popular in Malawi. Perhaps it’s a tie to being entertained; perhaps it’s a tie to their oral history. Whatever the reason, people are interested. There are also literary clubs popping up throughout Malawi, mostly tied to Chancellor College. Some established writers started various literary clubs, and often bring in authors from throughout Africa to talk to new writers not only about the ins and outs of how to write well and storytelling but the secrets of getting published and marketing their book as well. 

 

Shadrech Chikoti

There have been several influential writers not only in the literary culture of Malawi but in promoting literacy and writing in general. One well known poet from Malawi is Qabaniso Malewezi. Another name that seems to keep popping up is Shadrech Chikoti. As a successful short story writer and novelist, his stories “The Beggar Girl,” “The Baobab Tree,” and “The Trap” have won several awards. He also started The Story Club as a means of bringing together writers and critics to talk about and promote Malawian literature. It has grown so much that there are actually two branches: one in the capital Lilongwe and another in the northern city of Mzuzu.

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KAZAKHSTAN: ART AND LITERATURE

Because of the Kazakh’s tradition of primarily being a nomadic, horseback riding people, traditional arts were mainly relegated to having a practical use. Not that it didn’t look artistic at the same time, it just had to be useful. Textiles such as clothing, hats, and carpets/rugs were designed using a variety of embroidery and beading techniques to decorate it.  Felt, wool, and leather were often used in making these items. Wealthier people were able to afford clothing with gold and silver threads in it. Silver jewelry items were also commonly made. 

 

The traditional Kazakh home is called a yurt. These rudimentary homes are basically like a round tent with walls made of latticed wood or bamboo and a pitched cone-like roof. Many of these homes are designed to be packed up and carried with them to another location, much like how the teepees of the North American Indians were designed. A few designs, however, are built on wooden platforms for a more permanent design. 

During the Russian occupation, every building that was built was done purely out of functionality. There was no life in these lackluster buildings. When the country gained its independence and the Russians left, mosques and other buildings began popping up across the country again. Some of these mosques are built rather elaborately with much skill and care. The city of Astana hired Japanese architecture firms to create the city as well as some of its most iconic buildings. This modernity adds to its futuristic skyline. Today, there is a national push toward preserving their traditional arts after decades of arts suppression. Arts festivals and galleries showcasing the best of Kazakh artists dot the major cities and an appreciation toward the traditional arts is felt across the nation. 

The earliest form of literature was in the form of oral poetry; however, there have been mentions of these poetic traditions found inscribed on rocks. Typically during this time, the vast majority of the languages spoken were various Turkic languages and dialects. Like other cultures during these days, a major portion of these poems was about kings, warriors, and heroic legends. Book of the Dede Korkut and Oguz Name are two of the most well-known examples of literature from this period. 

During the period of Russian occupancy, Russian language literature was produced in Kazakhstan. One of the most prolific authors of this period was Abay Qunanbayuli. He’s often thought of as the father of modern Kazakh literature. He spent much of his time promoting Kazakh culture and Kazakh folk stories. Not only did he spend his time trying to preserve his own culture, but he also wrote about his feelings and views on Russian colonialism, especially noted in his book The Book of Words. 

Abay Qunanbayuli

Today, the country has a strong feeling toward its own literature, and the government actively promotes and awards up-and-coming authors with a variety of awards and prizes. Pretty much every genre of literature is covered by Kazakh writers, from women’s equality issues to science fiction to poetry. They are also pushing to have many of their works translated into other languages as well. Although some writers write in Kazakh, many writers publish their works in Russian in order to have a better chance on the international market. And certainly, many Kazakh writers have been the recipients of several Russian literary awards.

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THE GAMBIA: ART AND LITERATURE

There isn’t a lot of specific information on the art traditions of The Gambia. Many of its traditions are similar in nature to a lot of other West African countries. I’m trying not to say that there really isn’t any outstandingly noteworthy about their art, because I think there is probably a significant amount of art created there. It’s just that there really isn’t much that has been written and expounded upon in comparison to other countries. Like other West African countries, each ethnic group has its own set of masks for various ceremonies and functions. They are mostly made out of wood and painted with plant and other natural-based dyes.

by Edrisa Jobe

by Baboucarr Etu Ndow

Gambians are also skilled in arts and crafts and a variety of other art medium. Sculptures, dolls portraying traditional wear, and jewelry are often displayed. When it comes to functional art, Gambians make a variety of sandals, handbags, woven mats and material, and tie-dyed clothes. They also have a lot of traditional European-style paintings, mostly of African landscapes and people depicting typical Gambian life. Artists' styles vary from modern, abstract doused in surrealism but with touches of  primitivism. Watercolors seem to be a common medium. Some of the most renowned artists coming out of The Gambia are Baboucarr Etu Ndow, Bubacarr Badgie, Edrisa Jobe, Momodou Ceesay, Moulaye Sarr, Njogu Touray, and Toyimbo. Several cities have art museums and galleries showcasing traditional and modern Gambian art for both locals and tourists to admire.

Literature in The Gambia is either in English or in Arabic. Although English is the official language of the country, many Muslim Gambians are also starting to learn the Arabic language to better understand the Qur’anic verses they recite.  Literacy still remains a difficult feat, mostly because The Gambia still has a large portion of its people living in rural areas.  This makes it difficult for the access of schools and supplies. There are a growing number of elementary schools, but not as much access to higher education. Attendance is not required nor is it free. This is one reason why many have difficulty continuing their education. However, in most cases, it’s not for lack of interest. Most parents of school-aged children see the value in having both their boys and girls educated. Despite all of this, literacy is on the rise, although many of the older generations remain among the least literate.

University of The Gambia

Since the 1970s, there has been an increase in the number of people attending university and going on into educational fields and writing. Gambian schools often use textbooks and literature from other areas of Africa and Europe.  With this surge of college graduates, there is a push to create Gambian textbooks written by Gambian educators.

Janet Badjan-Young

And there have actually been many Gambian writers contributing to English-language literature (as well as some Arabic-language literature). Some of the English-language Gambian writers you might come across are Janet Badjan-Young (considered one of the best playwrights in the country), William Conton (educator and novelist, born in The Gambia, but of Sierra Leone Creole roots in the Caribbean, did most of his work in Sierra Leone and Ghana), Ebou Dibba (educator and novelist, was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire), Hassan Bubacar Jallow (lawyer, Attorney General for Gambia, writer, member of several International Criminal Tribunals),  Hanna Augusta Darling Jawara (nurse, playwright, fighter for women’s rights), Alh. A.E. Cham Joof (historian, author, radio program director, lecturer, known for his Pan-Africanism), Lenrie Peters (surgeon, novelist, poet, educator), and Tijan Sallah (economist, short story writer, poet).

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ETHIOPIA: ART AND LITERATURE

Prehistorically, rock art was the most common form of art, and it was similar in fashion to other specimens from other regions in this part of the world.  After Christianity was adopted, much of the artwork was religious-themed.  Iconography was common, characterizing the figures with their bright colors and almond-shaped eyes.  Diptychs (panel paintings with two panels) and triptychs (panel paintings with three panels) were also common.  The churches and cathedrals themselves were fully painted in the European tradition.  There were some minor differences; for example, angels were often depicted as being heads with wings. 

Crosses were very important as well.  Many of these are highly elaborate and ornate.  These crosses were mostly constructed from brass and plated with either gold or silver.  Crosses used in processions could be quite large in size and quite heavy.  Smaller crosses used as jewelry were also made and worn.  Other metalwork, such as crowns, was made for both royalty and high clergy members. 

Textile art was also commonly produced in Ethiopia.  A type of lightweight, opaque pattern-less cloth similar to chiffon was used to drape onto religious icons.  Generally, traditional cloth designs have geometric patterns to them (although many are plain) and tend to be quite colorful. 

Basket making is quite common, especially in the rural areas of Ethiopia.  Depending on its use, whether for storing food, doubling as tables, or being used as bowls, baskets can range from small to quite large. Designs are woven into the baskets as well.   

Early Ethiopian literature was written in the Ge’ez language. The Bible and other religious writings dominated the early literature canon. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church still uses the Ge’ez language as the language of religious literature.  The Ethiopian Jewish community (also known as Beta Israel) still uses the Ge’ez language today as well. The Garima Gospels are the oldest Ge’ez scripts, found in Eritrea and thought to date somewhere between 390-660.

By the time the 14^th century came, the language of literature was starting to shift towards using Amharic, Tigrinya, and Tigre, depending on the location. Histories, hagiographies, and letters have been found that have been dated during these early years through the 16^th century. Works such as “Book of Axum” and “Book of Enoch” are two famous works written in Ge’ez.

Book of Enoch

Literature written in Amharic covers more works in the most recent centuries. Although it also includes religious materials, it also includes educational materials, government records, novels, poetry, and basically anything that is read today.  Because of their multi-lingual society, the government declared the Amharic as the official working language of the federal government.  It’s also the language of primary education.  Other regional languages may be used locally and for unofficial business.

Dinaw Mengestu

A few notable authors from Ethiopia include Afevork Ghevre Jesus (wrote the first novel in Amharic), Dinaw Mengestu (novelist, journalist, has written for many magazines and newspapers about current events in Africa), Haddis Alemayehu (Foreign Minister, novelist, his works are considered classics), Haile Gerima (filmmaker, member of LA Rebellion film movement [also called Los Angeles School of Black Filmmakers]) Hama Tuma (writer, poet), Mammo Wudneh (playwright, journalist, peacemaker between Ethiopia and Eritrea), Nega Mezlekia (writer currently living in Canada, works are written in English), and Tsegaye Gabre-Medhin (art director, playwright, essayist, poet, Poet Laureate of Ethiopia).

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