SUDAN: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

This morning, I read an article about how Sudanese women are using secret Facebook groups to post pictures of police and others abusing protestors to identify them. Not only did these women unload on the contact info, but other tidbits like previous employers, where they went to college, families, friends, ex-girlfriends, and even down to what color their front door is. What led to these protests in the first place? Mainly, I’m gathering it’s a hodgepodge of garbage policies against women, sky-high inflation, and inaccessibility for basic goods and services. (The government even cut their Internet off, so they immediately went to VPN connections. Haha, nice try. “Nevertheless, she persisted.”)

image from an Al Jazeera article

The name Sudan is stemmed from its location south of the Sahara desert and originally meant “land of the Blacks.”

Sudan is a rather large country in the northeast corner of Africa. It’s surrounded by Egypt to the north; the Red Sea, Eritrea, and Ethiopia to the east; South Sudan and Central African Republic to the south; and Chad and Libya to the west. Most notably, the White and Blue Nile Rivers meet together in the city of Khartoum. The land has deserts, mountains, and plains and is rich in mineral deposits. The southern part gets more rain than the north, and there are actually swamps and rainforests in the south. The north is mostly desert and is plagued by sandstorms (called haboob – hee hee) that can be so thick that it blocks out the sun.

Check out this haboob hitting Khartoum

As the Sahara began to dry out much of the lands of northern Africa, people started settling closer to the fertile lands of the Nile. The Kingdom of Kush laid its stakes at the point where the White Nile and Blue Nile met. It was even mentioned in the Bible. Other Nubian kingdoms emerged and incorporated into others. Initially, they held off Arab expansion in the area and Christianity prevailed. Nubians developed their own language, and women held a high social status that included owning land, making their own financial decisions, and education. Around the 11^th and 12^th centuries, many of these kingdoms started to fall, some to Arab leaders and some to other African peoples (mainly the Funj). Between 1500-1700s, the Funj expanded and then saw the rise of Islam in this area. During the 1820s, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt invaded the northern part of Sudan. By the 1870s, the Mahdist forces essentially forced the people to adhere to Islam or be killed. Sharia Law took over and is still in place today. They ended up invading Ethiopia, and the British stepped in and fought for control against the French and Belgians. Around the turn of the 20^th century, Sudan was controlled jointly by Egypt and Britain (because being controlled by one country doesn’t suck enough). The British basically divided it into two sections: north and south. This lasted until they gained their independence in 1956. There were several coups during the first several decades, and then Col. Omar al-Bashir declared himself the president in 1989. (And he’s still there.) Things went downhill after he forced a one-party system and a pro-Islam government, favoring Sudanese Arabs over non-Arab Sudanese. This contributed to the War in Darfur (on the western side of the country). This conflict is seen as a genocide, and the Janjaweed (an Arab-speaking nomadic militia) is often at the heart of these acts of brutality. A peace agreement was finally signed in 2006.

Khartoum

The capital city, Khartoum, is divided by two rivers: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. Bridges connect many parts of the city together across both rivers. This city of 5.2 million people was only established since 1821; however, it was just north of the far more ancient city of Soba (not to be confused with the Japanese noodle). Today, the city is the center of government, transportation, media, education, and commerce.

Sudan was once considered the 17^th fasted growing economy roughly 10 years ago (2010), and it was mostly in oil. However, when South Sudan broke away, it took with it nearly 80% of their oilfields. This left the country in what’s called stagflation, where the inflation is high and the economic growth slows. Up until the discovery and establishment of the oil industry, agriculture has been the main economic driver. However, years of drought and a weakening of global agricultural prices crippled their staples. They have started to develop some hydroelectric dams along the rivers. Even at that, a large portion of the people live below the international poverty line (ranked at less than US$1.25/day).

The vast majority of Sudanese follow Islam (nearly 97%), mostly as Sufi or Salafi Muslims. Smaller groups of Christians do exist in Sudan, mainly following Protestantism or Roman Catholicism, although there are still some pockets of Greek Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Anglican, and other denominations of Christianity. 

After a change in their constitution in 2005, the official languages are Arabic and English. The most widely spoken language is a variety of Arabic called Sudanese Arabic. This variety borrowed quite a bit of vocabulary from other regional languages (namely Mabang, Nobiin, Fur, and Zaghawa) that it’s created quite a unique version of Arabic. In areas along the Red Sea, the Beja language can be heard while the Fur language is spoken in the Darfur region.

Most people think of Egypt when they think of pyramids, but Sudan has its own pyramids, too. Located near the city of Meroë, these pyramids are a collection of 200 pyramids built over 2000 years ago. The Meroitic Kingdom, in the eastern part of the country, ruled that area for nearly 900 years. Another archeological site called Kerma is about 5000 years old and also includes a large tomb known as Western Deffufa. Sudan’s culture extends back to antiquity, and it’s certainly been in the news during recent years (not quite for positive stories, though). But it’ll be interesting to see the cultural influences behind Sudan today.

Up next: art and literature

NIGER: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

When I was a kid, I didn’t know how to pronounce the name of this country. In fact, I was a little apprehensive to say it aloud since it looked close to an offensive word. But later on, I learned that it’s pronounced with the French pronunciation (nee-ZHER, not NYE-jer), and that it’s definitely not the same place as Nigeria.

 

Niger is named after the Niger River. In a local language, it was called Ni Ger (River Ger). It’s a common misconception (that I also believed) that Niger was named after the Latin name niger, the word for black in reference to the black skin of the people who lived there. (What a Eurocentric way of thinking.) And because its name is close to that of Nigeria, I also learned the differences between the adjective form: Nigerien refers to people and things from Niger; Nigerian refers to people and things from Nigeria.

This landlocked country is located in West Africa. It’s bordered by Algeria and Libya to the north, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, and Mali to the west. Located between the Sahara in the north and the Sub-Saharan regions in the south, it’s the sixth largest country by area in Africa and 22^nd in the world. The Niger River cuts through the far southwestern corner of the country and through the capital city of Niamey. Its desert area is hot and dry with sand dunes and desert plains while the areas around the river basin experience a tropical climate.

Once upon a time, a long, long, time ago, Niger wasn’t covered with desert. These areas were covered in fertile grasslands perfect for raising cattle and growing crops. But the Sahara Desert started creeping its way farther south about 7000 years ago. By about the 5^th century BC, this area became part of the crossroads between African migration from the northwest and trans-African trade routes with Arab traders. This also brought along the introduction of Islam. Parts of Niger were included as part of several empires throughout the centuries: Songhai, Hausa, Mali, and Kanem-Bornu. During the 19^th century, French explorers finally made their way to the lands of Niger. As they made their way across, they laid claim to the land and people based on European standards without a thought to the people who actually lived there. And the Nigeriens were not having it. Many revolted against the colonialism, but by 1922, they stopped resisting (as much) and became a French colony. In 1958, Niger became an autonomous state within the French community but gained its independence two years later. However, it started its independence as a one-party state and then spent most of the next 35 years toggling between military coups and a political stability.

The capital and largest city is Niamey (pronounced nya-MAY if you go with the French pronunciation, although many American English speakers pronounce it NEE-uh-may). The city was originally a small town and didn’t rise to prominence until the French decided to house a colonial post that eventually grew into its capital in 1926. Although it’s not centrally located, it’s the center of almost everything in the country: government, commerce, education, media, and transportation. There are several universities, museums, sports venues, markets, and many mosques.

Most people in Niger depend on subsistence farming and livestock as their main means of income. Agriculture is one of Niger’s primary economic drivers. However, desertification and droughts have had negative impacts on their crops in the past. The country also has some of the world’s largest deposits of uranium, but declines in demand has led to a weakened economy. On the upside of things, oil was discovered in the Tenere Desert back in the 1970s, but they never really had any serious production because some exploration tests showed there wasn’t enough to pursue. That idea was overturned a few years ago, and Niger produced its first barrels of oil back in 2011. Even so, Niger often depends on financial assistance and foreign aid from other countries. 

Nearly 80% of Nigeriens are Muslim while the remaining 20% consist of a smaller Christian population. Of the Muslims in Niger, the majority are Sunni. There is a certain amount of crossover with indigenous animism, as is found in many countries in Africa. And actually the country has established a constitutional separation of church and state.

The official language of Niger is French, left over from its colonial days. As a multi-lingual country, French is often used as a lingua franca as well. It’s the official language of the government and is spoken as a second language for many of its residents who were fortunate enough to continue their education abroad. Niger has also declared ten national languages: Arabic, Buduma, Hausa, Kanuri, Tassawaq, Tebu, Tamasheq, Zarma/Songhai, Gourmanchéma, and Fulfulde.

Despite its arid landscape, the country has quite a biodiversity. Animals like the cheetah, a variety of gazelle, the oryz, West African lion, elephant, antelopes, and buffaloes are found throughout the country. The Niger River itself is home to 20 species of fish that aren’t found any place else on earth except in the Niger River. There have even been dinosaur bones found hidden away in areas uncovered in the Sahara Desert. I’ve already found my recipes for this country, and I’m looking forward to finding out what else is hidden away in this country.

Up next: art and literature

MOROCCO: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

Several years ago, we got a cat. It was the cutest mousetrap I could find. My daughter gave me three name choices she wanted to go with: Marina, Melissa, and Morocco. The first two, while nice names for girls, are not names I would give my cat. So, Morocco it was. Since then, the kids have had this interest with the country of Morocco. For me, I’ve been interested in it since I was a kid, and my best friend at the time told me her grandmother visited Morocco. I asked why, and she showed me some photos, and it was beautiful. And those couple of photos changed my view. 

Morocco, the cat, warming her booty on the vent.

The English name for the country (Morocco) is based off of the Anglicized version of the Spanish name of the country, Marruecos, which is named after the city of Marrakesh. Many languages still refer to this country by their version of the word for Marrakesh, although the Turkish word is based off of the city of Fes. The term Maghreb, which now refers to all of Northern Africa, literally means “the West.” It once referred to just the western-most corner of northern Africa.

Morocco is located in the northwestern corner of Africa, surrounded by Algeria to the east and Western Sahara to the south. The Atlantic Ocean covers its western side. Morocco is also just across the Strait of Gibraltar from Spain and Gibraltar (it’s only about 8 miles across between Morocco and Gibraltar). There are a few enclaves that belong to Spain; the major ones are Ceuta and Melilla. Smaller ones include Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, Peñón de Alhucemas, and the Islas Chafarinas. The island of Perejil near Ceuta is disputed between Morocco and Spain. The nearby city of Tangier is the oldest city in Morocco. The Rif Mountains run along the northern coast while the Atlas Mountains run down its backbone until it comes to the Sahara Desert in the south. Morocco has a diverse climate to match its diverse landscape. Its mountain ranges lead to cooler, drier climates with snowfall and skiing (and the record cold temperatures for Africa at -11ºF). There are also forested areas, coastal plains, Mediterranean climates, and desert, which all contribute to its biodiversity. 

Way a long time ago, Morocco didn’t quite look the way we see it today. It was far less arid for one thing; the Sahara used to be quite smaller. Scientists have made links between some of the original people here with Cro-Magnons and others in Europe; mitochondrial DNA evidence shows similarities between the Berbers and the Saami (of Scandinavia). When the Phoenicians began to explore the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, they began to establish communities everywhere they landed. Around this time, Morocco was part of the Kingdom of Mauretania (not to be confused with Mauritania the country). As the Roman Empire expanded, Morocco was swept up in their territory as well. During the 7^th century, the Islamic Empire made its way across northern Africa, and the Berbers adopted their religion and ways of life. However, they did keep many of their own customary laws as well. From about the 11-15^th centuries, the Berbers went through several dynasty changes, dealing with migration, warring states, and famine. Morocco was actually the first state to recognize the United States’ independence. They even declared protection for American merchant ships from Barbary pirates. France had its eye on Morocco and began to make the moves. However, Spain still wanted to hold onto Ceuta, and France wasn’t trying to hear it; often course, they fought for many years over which areas of Morocco they were going to take. Moroccans fought on the side of the French during WWI and WWII, and alongside the Spanish Nationalist Army during the Spanish Civil War. During the early 1950s, France ousted Sultan Mohammed V and put in the guy no one hardly wanted, Mohammed Ben Aarafa. That set everyone off in violent protests. Mohammed V finally returned, France ended the protectorate, and Spain gave up its territories except for the few enclaves it still has. The Polisario movement began during the early 1970s to encourage the independence of Spanish Sahara. After some political movements, Spain peaced out, and the land became known as Western Sahara. It’s jointly “governed” by Morocco and Mauritania, and Algeria has had its problems with this arrangement, which led to several conflicts and cold shoulders throughout the decades. There have been efforts in recent years to establish its independence, but the Polisario has rejected the proposals. In the past couple of decades, Morocco has had some problems with homegrown terrorists; a handful of Moroccans were responsible for the 2003 Madrid train bombings and a number of other violent acts. 

Although Casablanca is the largest city and namesake of the 1942 movie Casablanca, the capital is actually Rabat. This city is located at the mouth of the Bou Regreg River, along Morocco’s Atlantic coast toward the northern part of the country. Across the river is its partner city Salé. It’s not one of the main ports, but it’s also the center for commerce, government, and has a number of sports venues, theatres, museums, and shopping centers/markets. With its modern architecture and infrastructure, it’s no wonder why this World Heritage Site ranked second on CNN’s “Top Travel Destinations of 2013.” 

Morocco was ranked number one at one time among African countries when it comes to quality of life (now they rank fifth, but that’s still pretty decent). Since they began to privatize certain economic sectors that used to be controlled by the government, they rose to become the 5^th strongest economy by GDP in Africa. Because tourism is such a high economic driver, the services sector makes up the largest portion of jobs. Textiles, telecommunications, and information technology are other fields that strengthen Morocco’s economy. 

Nearly all Moroccans are Muslim (about 99% of the people). Sunnis make up about two-thirds of Muslims, and non-denominational Muslims making up just less than a third. There is a small number of Christians in Morocco, mostly Roman Catholic with some Protestant denominations mixed in. In the larger cities (Casablanca, Rabat, Marrakesh), small Jewish communities surround some of the few temples in the country. 

Morocco has two official languages: Arabic and Berber. Some 90% communicate in Moroccan Arabic, especially using the dialect known as Darija. The Berber spoken in Morocco has three main dialects: Central Atlas Tamazight, Tarifit, and Tashelhit. Because of Morocco’s past dealings with France, French is still used often as a second language. In fact, it’s still used in the media, many governmental offices, and medium/large businesses will still use French for ease in the international business community. And because of their close ties to Spain throughout its history, Spanish is also spoken, especially in the some of the northern regions and in the south where the Spanish occupied Spanish Sahara. English is the top foreign language studied in school.

There are so many cool things about Morocco, that it would be hard to list them all here. But here are just a few: 1) the first time I heard of the city of Marrakesh was in an episode of the British show Absolutely Fabulous; apparently the city is famous for its markets. 2) The oldest university in the world is often attributed to the city of Fes. 3) Morocco is known for its large production of hashish. The term reefer is named after the Rif Mountains where most of it is grown. 4) To Moroccans, the liver is associated with love, not the heart. 5) Morocco has been used as a haven for artists, writers, musicians, and other foreigners who have been attracted to its Mediterranean climate and beautiful scenery. And I look forward to learning more about what drew them here.

Up next: art and literature

ALGERIA: THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE

Algeria is a mix of Berber, French, Arab, Turkish, and Spanish influence. It can be seen in its cuisine, in its music, in its language, and in the people. While it has a long dichotomous history of being conquered and independent, it is part of what has made its culture so rich.

Since South Sudan has become independent last summer, Algeria is now the largest country in Africa (as far as area goes).  It’s bordered by Tunisia, Libya, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Western Sahara, Morocco, and the Mediterranean Sea. In fact, it’s only about 100-150 miles across the Mediterranean to both Spain and Italy.  

When it comes to biodiversity, there is a lot of variety. The north of the country near the coast has the most fertile areas, where the vast majority of the agriculture is.  Ninety percent of the population lives in the northern regions of the country.  Rich in natural resources, the Atlas Mountains (and its subranges: Tell Atlas, Saharan Atlas and Aurès Mountains) spread across the northern areas of Algeria. South of the Sahara Atlas Mountains lies the well-known and vast Sahara desert. It’s actually spread across 12 different countries.  To get a better idea of just how big the Sahara Desert is, it would be more or less like cutting out the state of California and dumping sand on the rest of the United States. There are areas that can have no rain for up to 20-year periods of time! There are a few national parks and nature reserves that are now popular destinations for wildlife tours.

The country is actually named after its capital, Algiers. No, not the motel I stayed at when I took a vacation to Florida, but the port city on the Mediterranean. The city metro area has about 5 million people; that’s roughly the size of the entire state of Colorado. The next largest city is Oran, an important city for commerce. It’s also the birthplace of raï music, which we’ll get to in a couple of blogs.

Algeria’s official language is Arabic, but more recently is acknowledging the Berber languages, spoken by the native Berbers who ethnically make up the majority of Algerians today.  French is still understood (leftover from the days when it was ruled by the French) and since it is still taught in schools, many can read and write in French. (I’ve been trying to learn French for several years now. The key is that I took it off of my New Year Resolutions list, and voilà: I finally made it through the Berlitz Basic French book.) English is taught in schools as a secondary foreign language (behind French). 

About 99% of Algerians are Muslim, with the remaining 1% being Christian and Jewish. So, it’s not difficult to understand that Islam is a major contributing factor in the everyday lives of Algerians. Since their independence from France back in 1962, many Europeans have also flocked to Algeria. And in more recent years, there have been a push towards a more conservative society and that’s caused some fighting and issues between the conservatives and the more secular movement of people.

Algeria is a complex country with a complex culture. I’m really excited to delve into some of these cultural topics and its cuisine over the next few blogs. Please keep reading; this should be good.

Up next: Holidays and Celebrations

Resources:

Wikipedia: “Algeria,” “Algiers,” “Oran,” “List of US Cities by Population,” “Sahara Desert”

Algeria: www.algeria.com