SYRIA: ART AND LITERATURE

Arts have been a part of this region for several millennium. Handicrafts and tools have been built and created since antiquity. Once Islam became the dominant religion of Syria, that impact on art had changed. One of the aspects of Islam is that it forbids any kind of depiction or drawing of people or animals. So, essentially, prior to the early 20th century, much of their visual arts were geometric shapes, tessellations, and calligraphy. Sculptures out of marble and other materials are often seen outside of public buildings and palaces.

Metalwork, used in jewelry, cookware, and other tools, was really important. Jewelry mainly utilized gold and silver, but metals like copper and brass were used for plates, bowls, and other objects. Much of the metalwork art had originally been done by Syrian Jews.

Mosaic woodworking is another art that was highly popular. Using woods of different colors and textures created beautiful works of art, mainly as tables, chairs, desks, trays, game boards, boxes, etc.

Other arts include glassblowing (which I’d love to learn to do) and fabric making. A type of silk with floral patterns that show on both sides called damask is actually named for the city of Damascus where it was first produced. The Bedouins are also known for their weaving abilities, especially when it comes to prayer rugs and carpets.

The ancient city of Ugarit, near present-day Latakia, held long-forgotten ruins that were found by accident. What these accidental discoverers found were ancient texts, leading them to realize later they created their own cuneiform alphabet dating back to around the 14th century BC. Although written in a different script, the order of the alphabet is fairly similar to the order of the English alphabet as we know it today.

Today, and for a very long time, the vast majority of Syrian literature is written in Arabic. Much of the early examples of literature were in poetry, a genre that is very much a deep part of the broader Arab culture. However, most examples of literature stemmed after the nahda, a literary revival that took place during the late 19th century and early 20th centuries. It’s tied to a change toward more modernism, enlightenment, and cultural reform.

Adonis

Syria literature enveloped many of the same writing genres that were popular in Europe, the Americas, and the Middle East. If the 19th century focused on romantic literature, then the 20th century changed that. Social realism became an important genre for Syrian writers, addressing issues like recent wars and their place in the Arab community. Other genres that emerged during the 20th century include historical novels, magical realism, and science fiction.

Nizar Qabbani

Some authors of note to look for include Adonis (poet, translator), Muhammad al-Maghout (writer, poet), Haidar Haidar (novelist), Ghadah al-Samman (journalist, novelist), Nizar Qabbani (poet, diplomat -- read his poem "Balqis" about his wife who was killed in the 1981 bombing of the Iraqi embassy in Beirut. Very powerful, emotional), Zakaria Tamer (short story writer), Fawwaz Haddad (novelist), and Salim Barakat (novelist, poet).

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PAKISTAN: ART AND LITERATURE

The early art of Pakistan has many of the same roots as much of the Indian subcontinent. From sculptures, textiles and woven arts, to paintings, Indian arts traditions spread across much of what is now Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. Much of the early influences were religious based. And this area was rife with a variety of religions: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jainism. Arab traders and conquerors brought along with them Islamic art. As Pakistan’s identity became closely aligned with Islam, Islamic art became especially prominent in Pakistan. 

 

After Pakistan gained its independence, their art became a voice. It became the voice of finding their identity, both politically and religiously. Pakistani artists were interested in the art movements and styles of European and American artists and began merging it with their own traditional arts, such as painting Islamic calligraphy in the midst of modern backgrounds. Abstract art and other modern styles crept in during the 1950s and 1960s. 

There are a few different styles of architecture you’ll see in Pakistan that reflects its history. First, you’ll see Buddhist style monasteries and other similar buildings. You’ll also see quite a bit of Arab- and Persian-inspired architecture that is built with Islam and geography in mind. This not only includes mosques and schools but some homes as well. After the British made their way into the area, more European-style buildings were built. Traditionally, red-clay bricks are used to build homes and are still used in rural areas. Brickmakers are often used as a debtors prison system masqueraded as indentured servitude.

One thing that really fascinates me is Pakistani truck art. Artists elaborately and intricately paint every conceivable space on large dump trucks, busses, vans, RVs, flatbed tow trucks, etc. Some are adorned with beads, wood carvings, calligraphy, portraits, and chains. I think it’s amazing! It’s sometimes known by its slang name, jingle trucks, which may have got its name from the chains that hang on its bumper. I would never have thought that a tow truck or dump truck could be beautiful, but man was I wrong! This might be my new favorite thing!

 

Sadequain, calligraphy

When it comes to painting arts, artists you should look for include Sadequain (murals, calligraphy, paintings), Abdur Rahman Chughtai (created his own style of painting), Jamil Naqsh (painting), Sughra Rabibi (female painter), Ismail Gulgee (abstract and portrait painter), and Ajaz Anwar (painter). 

When it comes to Pakistani literature, there are a plethora of languages you can find it written in. It really depends on the author. Because of Pakistan’s multilingual society and history, you can find works in Urdu, Punjabi, Pashto, Sindhi, Balochi, Saraiki, Kashmiri, and English. The English used is actually Pakistani English, a local dialect. During the early days, especially after Islam was introduced to this area, writings in Persian could also be found and lasted for quite a while, but it later gave way to other languages.

After Pakistan gained its independence, their literature really took off. Short stories and novels were used as a means for expressing political views, historical events, and national identity. Many writers merged certain traditional literary styles with modern ones or modern languages.

One writer who stands out is Saadat Hassan Manto. His short stories written during the India-Pakistan fight for independence helped create the backdrop for other writers to emerge in their own styles. In many ways, it helped bring to light the many difficulties and struggles of many of Pakistan’s people. Other notable writers to look up include Farhat Ishtiaq, Mustansar Hussain Tarar, Umera Ahmed, Bano Qudsia, Intizar Hussain, Ashfaq Ahmed, Ibn-e-Safi, Ibn e Insha, and Qudrat Ullah Shahab.

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MOROCCO: ART AND LITERATURE

Much of Morocco’s art is a blend of indigenous Berber traditions with Spanish, French, Andalusian, Arab, and Jewish. Their craftwork includes jewelry (gold, silver, beadwork), textiles, leatherwork, and other mediums that blend art with functionality

Architecture here can vary across many styles based on when it was built and whose style it was based on. Because of its location and historical heritage, buildings can range in a number of styles and ornamentation. The first major foreign influence was Islam. They introduced tiling, geometric patterns, fountains, elaborately decorated doorways, and of course mosques. The Spanish also introduced arches (although I thought that arches were part of Islamic architecture as well, but maybe these are archier or something), tile roofs, and gardens. When the French moved into Morocco, they further changed the cityscape. They required buildings to be no more than four stories tall, regulated that balconies can’t overlook into someone else’s home (that seems fair), and required that at least 20% of the residential property be devoted to garden or courtyard. Although colors and materials may vary, woodwork and ceramic work seems to span all styles. 

From the outsides of the home to the insides, color and geometric design dominates Moroccan art. Intricate wood carving techniques are passed down from generation to generation. With these skills, people carve furniture, tools, and utensils. Ceramics, such as ornamentation and bowls, are often created and painted in a number of colors and designs. They’re also known for their brightly colored woven carpets, utilizing many colors and geometric designs.

The art scene in Morocco today is among some of the leading displays of African art. Art galleries dot the country, and all of the major cities hold their own art festivals throughout the year, sometimes multiple times a year. Moroccan artists have not only excelled in art shows and exhibitions in Morocco but many artists have showcased their work across Africa, Europe, and the Americas. 

The literature of Morocco is written in many languages, from Berber and Moroccan Arabic to colonial languages such as French and Spanish. And really from about 1000-1900, poetry is one of the main styles of literature. Much of the early poetry was centered around court life and historical writing. As mosques began popping up across the country, they also served as a sort of de facto library, housing numerous manuscripts and book stops for the people in the community.

One of the most important developments in literature is tied to the city of Fez. During the 12^th century, the world’s first university was the University of Fez, and it had a great impact in not only writing and developing a literary society but also teaching younger generations how to continue their efforts.

Ahmed ibn Nasir's travelogue

Starting from about the 16^th–19^thcenturies, a number of other genres were also introduced during this time. Travelogues like the rihla (an Islamic journey) written by the Ahmed ibn Nasir were pretty common along with other religious writings. Biographies, historical writings, songs, and other styles were also written during this time.

Mohammed al-Mokhtar Soussi

The 20^th century brought forth many changes, not only in their literature but also in a socio-political sense as well. Mohammed Ben Brahim was part of the first generation of writers who was prolific during the decades they were part of the French Protectorate. A second generation of writers such as Mohammed al-Mokhtar Soussi, Abdelkrim Ghallab, and Allal al-Fassi helped push the transition between occupation and becoming independent. After Morocco gained its independence, a third generation of writers emerged and further impacted their literary scene. Writing in a number of mediums—novels, plays, poetry, journalistic works—modern writers during the 1960s and 1970s pushed the boundaries of what was literature and certainly pushed the boundaries of what was acceptable.

Peter Orlovsky, left, Jack Kerouac, and William S. Burroughs (fully clothed)

The 1950s and 1960s were also a time when many American and European writers were flocking to Morocco as an escape and “sabbatical.” Perhaps it was the sun, the Mediterranean climate, or the food, but quite a few writers spent time in Morocco working on their writing: Jack Kerouac, William S Burroughs, Tennessee Williams, Brion Gysin, and Paul Bowles just to name a few.

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MAURITANIA: ART AND LITERATURE

Artists in Mauritania are thought to contain a secret knowledge. In this way, I suppose there’s a certain mysticism in how they work. Although an artist’s particular artwork may vary, the knowledge of how to make it is passed down from generation to generation. 

 

Much of their art is handicraft work: pottery, weaving and textiles, carvings and such. There are also ample examples of rock wall drawings and paintings from the ancient days. Like most other African art traditions, most of their art wasn’t simply for art’s sake: it served a purpose. Some of their art was for practical purposes (tools, utensils, and other home wares, or even their architectural styles), but others were for religious purposes (like the iconic African masks or other sculptures). Mauritania has a blend of cultures—West African coming from the south and Berber traditions from the north—so particular artistic styles may be different in various parts of the country, depending on the ethnic background of the people. 

As the Arabs spread Islam into Mauritania, their art reflected this change as well. Islam strictly forbids the depiction of people and other living creatures in their art, so wall coverings and other building designs uses geometric and floral patterns, often based on mathematics. One common place for this type of decoration is around doorways. Not only is it beautiful, but many times, these intricately carved additions and archwork in buildings are also utilized to draw the wind in order to cool down buildings during the heat of the day as well as add stability to the structure. 

Stories and important historical events have been passed down from generation to generation orally for hundreds of generations. It was mostly in the form of epic poetry, religious poetry, storytelling, and riddles and puzzles. For this reason, there isn’t a strong written literary tradition in Mauritania. To compound these matters for Mauritanian writers, the country has a low adult literacy rate, ranging from 52-58%; the rates are significantly higher for males than females. That being said, the books that are published in Mauritania tend to be written in Arabic, French, or any of the other indigenous languages spoken in the country, but they’re only able to be read by roughly a little more than half the country.

Mauritanian storyteller Yahya Rajel

However, that’s not to say there wasn’t anything written down until the French got there. Clearly, as we learned with Mali, there were African scholars all over, sharing information and writing it down. Both public and private libraries in Mauritania are full of manuscripts and scrolls with historical information dating back thousands of years. The ancient city of Chinguetti, now crumbling away with only about 4000 people, is home to some of the oldest Koranic texts in the world. 

One modern author is Mohamed Bouya Ould Bamba, a Mauritanian author who was a Fulbright scholar at Kent State University. He did vow to publish one novel a summer, translate it into English, and offer it as a free download (there’s apparently a lack of Mauritanian literature that has been translated into English). His first book, Angels of Mauritania and the Curse of the Language, was published in 2011. (For a synopsis, check out one of my favorite blogs by clicking here.)  

Other writers from Mauritania include Ahmad ibn al-Amin al-Shinqiti (one of the most famous authors from this country), Ahmed Baba Miské (politician, ambassador to the US, UN representative, writer), Moussa Diagana (mainly writes in French), Ibn Razqa (poet and scholar, often thought of as the Father of Mauritanian Poets), Moussa Ould Ebnou (one of the country’s greatest novelists, published books in both French and Arabic), and Youssouf Gueye (wrote in French, died in prison because he opposed the government). 

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LIBYA: ART AND LITERATURE

Libyan art shares influences with several cultures that have historically been in the area: Romans, Ottomans, Arabs, Tuaregs, Berbers, Italians, and others. The earliest forms of art are in the form of cave drawings found at a site near Awiss. These drawings mostly show the hunt of animals and desert life. Really, what else is there? (I’m joking.) Wadi Tidwa is known for its more bizarre rock carvings, and archaeologists have thought that perhaps it’s related to some ancient religion because, you know, religion can be bizarre sometimes. Other areas where rock carvings have been found include Messak Settafet, Mellet, and Wadi Matkhandoush. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, the Libyans invented the wheel, and subsequently, there are about 500 examples of cave drawings of chariots. (Yes, but are they on fire?) 

It's supposed to be two cats fighting. They must've been able to see into the future and paint what I deal with every single day..

Many of their folk art traditions are tied in with Islamic traditions. And per the Islamic guideline that no figures or animals are to be depicted, Libyan crafts and folk art do not have this either. Instead, geometric patters are used. Other crafts and folk arts include embroidery and weaving, metal engraving, instrument making, jewelry making (mostly out of leather, silver, and beads), and leatherwork. 

Libyan Berber jewelry

Art has long been used as a means of expression and as a means of addressing issues that need to be dealt with. Unfortunately, many of Libya’s artists left the country due to the high level of censorship under the Gaddafi government. One artist is Aimen Ajhani (aka El Bohly). He was instrumental as a graffiti artist, and often created art with a political message. In Libya, he often faced arrest for his craft, many times reported by people who didn’t understand what he was doing — even after the war. I think that although most art was repressed for almost two generations, now that we’re on the other side of the Civil War, artists are finally starting to come out and be more open about it. The political situation is still somewhat shaky, but I think it’s heading in the direction of getting better. (Maybe? I hope?)

by El Bohly

Libyan literature stretches back thousands of years. Early Libyan literature was stemmed from its oral poetry traditions. It didn’t have as much impact on early literature coming out of the Arab Renaissance. However, its oral poetry strived, and it was this medium that was used to express their unsavory sentiments during the Italian occupation. 

by Sadeq al-Neihum

Modern Libyan literature didn’t really get its momentum until after they gained their independence. Many of the writers who rose to prominence during the 1960s wrote on progressive and socialist views. Writers like Ali al-Regeie, Khamel al-Maghur, Sadeq al-Neihum, Khalifa al-Fakhri, and Muhammad al-Shaltami followed these themes and were widely read during this time. 

 

Ghassan Fergiani owns a bookshop in London promoting Arabic and Libyan literature.

These writers hit a wall after Muammar Gaddafi took over. He set up one single state-owned publishing house that everyone had to go through whether you liked it or not. The state got to decide who and what got published. The ones who didn’t like it were either imprisoned or just simply left the country. It was a rough time for anyone in the arts, especially if your views were contrary to Gaddafi’s. After the Civil War, however, this uber-conservative censorship was lifted, and writers could freely write again. (More or less, I suppose.) Their constitution made sure they wrote in freedom of the press. It’ll be interesting to see how free their freedom of the press is as we continue to watch the changes in their political situation.

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JORDAN: ART AND LITERATURE

Jordan’s traditional arts are highly influenced by Islamic art and other traditions from the region. Two of the most significant arts found in Jordan are ceramic arts and mosaic arts. Many of these pieces include Islamic motifs and themes as well as Islamic calligraphy. If you’ve ever seen Islamic calligraphy, it’s an art in and of itself. Some can be quite elaborate. Mosaic art has been discovered in many of the archaeological sites throughout the country and is a skill that is still being encouraged today. In fact the government started a mosaic school in order to preserve the mosaics that are found in these various historical sites. It’s set up in the city of Madaba, which is known for its large mosaic map of the Holy Land. 

 

Another craft known in Jordan is embroidery, especially that from the Palestinian women. They are known for their textile needlework and typically use a variety of colors to create patterns based on geometric shapes. It doesn’t stop there: Jordanians are also known for their rug and carpet making as well as basket weaving. Most of these items are designed for use in the home. Other small handicrafts such as decorative bottles and jewelry are also commonly practiced. 

Today, Jordanians also study painting and sculpture and other contemporary arts. Amman is the artistic center of the country, although other larger cities also have their own arts support organizations. Amman has many art museums and smaller art galleries spread throughout the city. These galleries not only showcase many of Jordan’s finest artists but also the works of artists from the entire region. Many Iraqi artists have fled to Jordan to escape the terrible conditions in their country, and there are some galleries designed just for Iraqi art. 

by Fadi Daoud

Prior to the 20^th century, there really aren’t too many works of literature to note. Most of the early literature was in the form of religious texts, and today the vast majority of literature produced is written in Arabic. One of the first Jordanian poets to really become popular was Mustafa Wahbi al-Tal. Many of his poems used humor to discuss life in Jordan as well serious subjects like anti-colonialism and nationalism. 

Only in the latter part of the 20^th century did Jordanian writers really take the stage. Many of the most popular authors often tout Mounis al-Razzaz as one of the instrumental figures in bringing contemporary Jordanian literature to the limelight. One of the main themes that run through his works includes the transition between small, traditional towns and the larger, more modern cities. 

Rifka Doudeen is a female author who has risen to popularity with her collection of short stories and a novel. Other writers such as Ramadan al-Rawashdeh, Mefleh al-Adwan, Basma Nsour, Abdullah Mansour, Abdel Raouf Shamoun, Hashim Ghareybeh, Jamal Naji, and Raga Abu Gazaleh have won many awards and prizes for their works, which are enjoyed throughout much of the Arab world.

There are a few Palestinian authors who have risen to fame as well. There are several authors, like Taher al-Edwan as well as many Palestinian/Jordanian authors who are living abroad, who have written first hand on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and books that take place during events in this history. Many of these books have also won national and international awards. 

from Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade

During the past decade, Jordan has made significant pushes toward encouraging the film industry. Several big-name films have been filmed in Jordan (Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Lawrence of Arabia, The Hurt Locker, Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen, and others), and many more are on the schedule. They do make their own films, and many filmmaking companies across the region choose to film here for many reasons. The popularity of writing films taking place in Iraq has risen, but due to the instability of the security in that country, it’s not always safe to actually film there. Thankfully, the terrain in Jordan is very similar to Iraq, and there are many Iraqi refugees already in Jordan.

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